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Grammar final: study guide

Grammar Final: Study Guide Noun: A person, place, or thing (or an idea or activity) Common Nouns — general, not specific, not capitalized Proper Nouns — specific, capitalized Gerund Nouns — a verb that, having added, ‘ ing’ is a noun i. e running: a noun, but ‘ to run’ is a verb EXAMPLE SENTENCES The boy is in love. boy: common noun, functioning as the subject of the sentence love: common noun Skipping through Central Park is energizing. Skipping: gerund noun, functioning as the subject of the sentence Central Park: proper noun Watching the movie made me feel sick. Watching: gerund noun, functioning as the subject of the sentence movie: common noun *When using a gerund, use the possessive pronoun i. e His running is amazing. His: possessive pronoun running: gerund Note: all months are capitalized all languages are capitalized Note: all months are capitalized all languages are capitalized Verbals: When a verb functions as another part of speech Participle: Starts out as a verb — adjective (with ‘ ing) Gerund: Starts out as a verb — noun (with ‘ ing’) Infinitive: to + verb (verbs that have not been conjugated) EXAMPLE SENTENCES The starving beggar asked for food. starving: participle, verb functioning as an adjective describing beggar Running was the man’s favorite exercise. running: gerund, verb functioning as a common noun The boy loved to dance. to dance: infinitive Adjectives: Words that modify nouns and pronouns, “ descriptive words” Articles — a, an, the Participle – Starts out as a verb — adjective (with ‘ ing) Common adjective — normal adjective describing a noun or pronoun Proper adjective — a word that modifies a noun or pronoun but is also a Proper Noun Number — a number modifying a noun or pronoun EXAMPLE SENTENCES Annabel found shiny pennies. Annabel: proper noun, functioning as the subject of the sentence shiny: common adjective, describing/modifying ‘ pennies’ The girl ate an apple. The: article, functioning as an adjective an: article, functioning as an adjective Ingrid tripped over the sleeping beggar. sleeping: participle, functioning as an adjective, describing/modifying ‘ beggar’ I walk to English class. English: describes/modifies class, proper noun I had one cookie. one: adjective (number) modifying cookie Verbs: The part of speech that expresses existence, action, or occurrence functions as the simple predicate in a sentence Action verb Helping verb State of being verb Linking verb Adverbs: Words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. The word answers the questions how, when, why, under what circumstances, and to what extent. List of words that look like adverbs but are NOT: friendly lonely neighborly lovely motherly deadly fatherly List of words that look like adverbs but are NOT: friendly lonely neighborly lovely motherly deadly fatherly Phrase: a group of words (group meaning two or more) Prepositions: in to by for from with over under among towards beneath around through above below across behind beside Prepositional Phrase: beginning with a preposition, and then ending with a noun that functions as the object of the preposition EXAMPLE SENTENCES: In the store In: preposition the: article, functioning as an adjective store: common noun, functioning as the object of the preposition By the river By: preposition the: article, functioning as an adjective river: common noun, functioning as the object of the preposition Conjunctions: A word that connects two parts of speech or two sentences Coordinating conjunctions — for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (F. A. N. B. O. Y. S) Subordination conjunctions — although, as if, as, as though, after*, because, before*, even, even if, even though, if, *since, when, while, whenever, wherever, unless, until*, than, so that EXAMPLES SENTENCES Billy ate an apple and a pear. and: coordinating conjunction, connecting two parts of speech Joe ate a hot dog, but he was still hungry. but: coordinating conjunction, connect two sentences Although Sally was upset, she still smiled. although: subordinating conjunction, beginning a complex sentence Pronoun: A word that replaces a preceding noun Personal Pronoun – Nominative Case — used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence Objective Case — used when the pronoun is the object, direct object, or object of the preposition Possessive Case — used to show possession (two types: used as an adjective or pronoun) Antecedent: what comes before, the preceding noun Antecedent: what comes before, the preceding noun Nominative Case | Singular | Plural | 1st Person | I | We | 2nd Person | You | You | 3rd Person | He/she/it | they | Objective Case | Singular | Plural | 1st Person | Me | Us | 2nd Person | You | You | 3rd Person | Him/her/it | them | Possessive Case —used as an adjective | Singular | Plural | 1st Person | my | Our | 2nd Person | Your | Your | 3rd Person | His/her/its | their | Possessive Case — used as a pronoun | Singular | Plural | 1st Person | mine | ours | 2nd Person | yours | yours | 3rd Person | His/hers/its | theirs | EXAMPLE SENTENCES The baby is crying. She has the flu. baby: proper noun, antecedent She: personal pronoun in the nominative case, 3rd person singular, replacing ‘ baby’ Nick hated Joyce. He was mean to her. Joyce: proper noun, antecedent her: personal pronoun in the objective case, 3rd person singular, replacing ‘ Joyce’ The dog wagged its tail. dog: common noun, antecedent its: personal pronoun in the possessive case (used as an adjective), 3rd person singular, replacing ‘ dog’ Max bought the apple, so it was his. Max: proper noun, antecedent his: personal pronoun in the possessive case (used as a pronoun), 3rd person singular, replacing ‘ Max’ Apostrophe: to show possession or ownership Singular Possessive — when the owner is singular: noun + ‘ apostrophe s’ Plural Possessive — when the owners are plural: plural noun + ‘ apostrophe’ Names ending in ‘ s’ — name ending in ‘ s’ + ‘ apostrophe s’ To show shared ownership — apostrophe ending is put onto last owner To show more than one person’s ownership at once — apostrophe ending is put onto each owner Exceptions to the usage of Names ending in ‘ s’: Rule stands for all names ending in ‘ s’ besides iconic figures with names ending in ‘ s’ Iconic Figure with name ending in ‘ s’ — name ending in ‘ s’ + ‘ apostrophe’ i. e Jesus’ disciples are loyal. *Iconic Figure: NOT celebrities Exceptions to the usage of Names ending in ‘ s’: Rule stands for all names ending in ‘ s’ besides iconic figures with names ending in ‘ s’ Iconic Figure with name ending in ‘ s’ — name ending in ‘ s’ + ‘ apostrophe’ i. e Jesus’ disciples are loyal. *Iconic Figure: NOT celebrities EXAMPLE SENTENCES Maddy’s grandmother was kind. The grandmother of Maddy was kind Maddy’s: proper noun + ‘ apostrophe s’ The boys’ teacher is young. The teacher of the boys is young. boys’: plural noun + ‘ apostrophe’ Dr. Rowes’s class was fun. The class of Dr. Rowes was fun. Dr. Rowes’s: proper noun ending in ‘ s’ + ‘ apostrophe s’ Ashley and Maria’s friend is lovely. The friend of Ashley and Maria is lovely. Maria: proper noun, showing shared ownership — ‘ apostrophe s’ added onto last owner Ashley’s and Maria’s friends are lovely. Ashley’s and Maria’s — showing ownership of different things, each get ‘ apostrophe s’ ending Attributive Noun: A proper or common noun that functions as an adjective i. e Nicole was invited by the Reisman family to have dinner with them. Reisman: attributive noun, describing family, acts as an adjective Quotation: the exact words of someone else in writing or in speech Must have an attribution: the source of the quote When the attribution precedes the quote: The attribution ends with a comma or a colon. – Comma is used most commonly – Colon is used when the person speaking is distinguished, the quote is very important, or when the quote comes from a text – Double quote marks follow When the attribution precedes the quote: The attribution ends with a comma or a colon. – Comma is used most commonly – Colon is used when the person speaking is distinguished, the quote is very important, or when the quote comes from a text – Double quote marks follow When the attribution comes after the quote: – The attribution is lowercase UNLESS it is proper noun When the attribution comes after the quote: – The attribution is lowercase UNLESS it is proper noun Punctuation of a Quotation: ALWAYS use DOUBLE quote marks: “ “ * The first letter of the quote is always capitalized * If the attribution precedes the quote: The quote ends in a period, exclamation point, or question mark INSIDE double quote marks. * If the attribution comes after the quote: The quote ends in a comma, exclamation point, or question mark. **Never a period EXAMPLE SENTENCES Mark Antony said: “ When that the poor hath cried, Caesar hath wept. ” “ When that the poor hath cried, Caesar hath wept, ” Mark Antony said. Billy cried, “ Do you love me? ” “ I do! ” responded Samantha. Paraphrase: taking the essential ideas of someone else in speech or writing * Ideas must be changed into one’s own * The writer or speaker must be included * Use the word ‘ that’ to transition into the paraphrase EXAMPLE SENTENCES Mark Antony said that Caesar sobbed when the poor cried. Samantha said that she did love Billy. Clauses: A subject, verb, and a thought Independent Clause — a subject, verb, and complete thought (simple sentence) Dependent Clause — a subject, verb, and incomplete thought (fragment EXAMPLE SENTENCES I like pizza. Independent Clause (contains a subject, verb, and a complete thought — simple sentence) I hate Dependent Clause (contains a subject, verb, and incomplete thought — fragment) Sentence Structure: starts with a simple sentence Simple Sentence — a subject, verb, and a complete thought (an independent clause) Compound Sentence — two simple sentences (or independent clauses) joined by a coordination conjunction Complex Sentence — one independent clause, one dependent clause, including a subordinating conjunction w/compound predicate and compound subject Maddy and Jan walked and fed the dog. w/compound predicate and compound subject Maddy and Jan walked and fed the dog. w/compound predicate Maddy walked and fed the dog. walked and fed: compound predicate w/compound predicate Maddy walked and fed the dog. walked and fed: compound predicate w/compound subject Maddy and Jan walk the dog. Maddy and Jan: compound subject w/compound subject Maddy and Jan walk the dog. Maddy and Jan: compound subject Simple Sentence Sally loves Billy. Sally: subject loves: verb Billy: direct object Simple Sentence Sally loves Billy. Sally: subject loves: verb Billy: direct object SIMPLE SENTENCE: COMPOUND SENTENCE: Basic Construction Format ______simple sentence______ , _coordinating conjunction_ __simple sentence_ Semi Colon Construction Basic Format _______simple sentence ; _______simple sentence___ With an adverbial conjunction ____simple sentence____ ; _________adverbial conjunction____ , _____simple sentence___ With a transitional phrase _______simple sentence______ ; ________transitional phrase , ______simple sentence___ Adverbial Conjunctions Transitional Phrases accordingly as a result furthermore in addition moreover above all similarly in conclusion also for instance hence for instance namely in fact anyway on the contrary however in particular nevertheless in comparison nonetheless at the same time therefore in truth Note: The semi colon is used to show comparison or contrast. Parallel structures must be used. Note: The semi colon is used to show comparison or contrast. Parallel structures must be used. EXAMPLE SENTENCES Billy was hungry; he eyed the chocolate bar. Billy was hungry: simple sentence He eyed the chocolate bar: simple sentence Jan hated Billy’s family; namely, she despised his uncle. Jan hated Billy’s family: simple sentence namely: adverbial conjunction She despised his uncle: simple sentence Jack did not study for his test; as a result, he got a low score. Jack did not study for his test: simple sentence as a result: transitional phrase He got a low score: simple sentence Colon Construction: Basic Spotlight Format __simple sentence (MUST BE FULL SENTENCE)____ : ___a few words___ Effect and Cause Format _____simple sentence____ : ____simple sentence____ List or Series Format ______simple sentence_____ : ____two or more items___ EXAMPLE SENTENCES Dr. Rowes only gave one good grade on her test: to Natalie. Dr. Rowes only gave one good grade on her test: simple sentence to Natalie: a few words Dr. Rowes became sick last night: she ate her own cooking. Dr. Rowes became sick last night: simple sentence She ate her own cooking: simple sentence Billy went to many different colleges on his spring break: Hobart College, Bard College, and Beloit College. Billy went to many different colleges on his spring break: simple sentence Hobart College, Bard College, and Beloit College: series or list separated by commas COMPLEX SENTENCE: Format __dependent clause (starting with a subordinating clause)____ , ___simple sentence___ Format option #2 ____simple sentence____ _____subordinating conjunction and dependent clause EXAMPLE SENTENCES: After the movie ended, John went home. After the movie ended: dependent clause After: subordinating clause John went home: simple sentence Mark walked his dog before he went to school. Mark walked his dog: simple sentence Before he went to school: dependent clause Special Cases: subordinating conjunctions: than, so that can be used to compare i. e Sally is prettier than Suzie. subordinating conjunctions: before, after, until, since ALSO prepositions if only a noun comes after these words, it is NOT a complex sentence** Before school, Billy went for a walk. This is a simple sentence because ‘ before school’ is a prepositional phrase. Special Cases: subordinating conjunctions: than, so that can be used to compare i. e Sally is prettier than Suzie. subordinating conjunctions: before, after, until, since ALSO prepositions if only a noun comes after these words, it is NOT a complex sentence** Before school, Billy went for a walk. This is a simple sentence because ‘ before school’ is a prepositional phrase. subjunctive — what one wishes, desires, etc indicative — what is Note: Definition of a run-on — two independent clauses punctuated with a comma in between Note: Definition of a run-on — two independent clauses punctuated with a comma in between

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